The field of nuclear medicine has long been concerned with techniques of diagnosis wherein radio pharmaceuticals are introduced into a patient and the resultant distribution or concentration thereof as evidenced by gamma ray intensities is observed or tracked by an appropriate system of detection. An important advantage of the diagnostic procedure is that it permits non-invasive investigation of a variety of conditions of medical interest. Approaches to this investigative technique have evolved from early pioneer procedures wherein a hand-held radiation counter was utilized to map body contained areas of radioactivity, to more current systems for imaging gamma ray source distributions, in vivo utilizing stationary cameras with broadened fields of view. In initially introduced practical systems, scanning methods were provided for generating images, such techniques generally utilizing a scintillation-type gamma ray detector equipped with a focusing collimator which moved continuously in selected coordinate directions, as in a series of parallel sweeps, to scan regions of interest. A drawback to the scanning technique resides in the necessarily longer exposure times required for the derivation of an image. For instance, such time elements involved in image development generally are overly lengthy to carry out dynamic studies of organ function.
By comparison to the rectilinear scanner described above, the later developed "gamma camera" is a stationary arrangement wherein an entire region of interest is imaged at once. As initially introduced, the stationary camera systems generally utilized a larger diameter sodium Iodide, Na I (TI) crystal as a detector in combination with a matrix of photomultiplier tubes. For additional information concerning such a camera, see:
I. anger, H.O., "A New Instrument For Mapping Gamma Ray Emitters", Biology and Medicine Quarterly Report UCRL-- 3653, 1957. PA1 Ii. r. n. beck, L. T. Zimmer, D. B. Charleston, P. B. Hoffer, and N. Lembares, "The Theoretical Advantages of Eliminating Scatter in Imaging Systems," Semiconductor Detectors in Nuclear Medicine, (P. B. Hoffer, R. N. Beck, and A. Gottschalk, editors), Society of Nuclear Medicine, New York, 1971, pp. 92-113. PA1 Iii. r. n. beck, M. W. Schuh, T. D. Cohen, and N. Lembares, "Effects of Scattered Radiation on Scintillation Detector Response", "Medical Radioisotope Scintigraphy", IAEA, Vienna, 1969, Vol. 1, pp. 595-616. PA1 Iv a. b. brill, J. A. Patton, and R. J. Baglan, "An Experimental Comparison of Scintillation and Semiconductor Detectors for Isotope Imaging and Counting", IEEE Trans. Nuc. Sci., Vol. NS-19, No. 3, pp. 179-190, 1972. PA1 V. m. m. dresser, G. F. Knoll, "Results of Scatting in Radioisotope Imaging", IEEE Trans. Nuc. Sci., Vol. NS-20, No. 1, pp. 266-270, 1973. PA1 Vi. j. detko, "Semiconductor Diode Matrix for Isotope Localization", Phys. Med. Biol., Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 245-253, 1969. PA1 Vii. j. f. detko, "A Prototype, Ultra Pure Germanium Orthogonal Strip Gamma Camera", Proceedings of the IAEA Symposium on Radioisotope Scintigraphy, IAEA/SM-164/135, Monte Carlo, October 1972. PA1 Viii r. p. parker, E. M. Gunnerson, J. L. Wankling, and R. Ellis, "A Semiconductor Gamma Camera with Quantitative Output" Medical Radioisotope Scintigraphy. PA1 Ix. v. r. mcCready, R. P. Parker, E. M. Gunnerson, R. Ellis, E. Moss, W. G. Gore, and J. Bell, "Clinical Tests on a Prototype Semiconductor Gamma-Camera", British Journal of Radiology, Vol. 44 58-62, 1971. PA1 X. parker, R. P., E. M. Gunnerson, J. S. Wankling, R. Ellis, "A Semiconductor Gamma Camera with Quantitative Output", Medical Radioisotope Scintigraphy, Vol. 1, IAEA, 1969, p. 71. PA1 Xi. detko, J. F., "A Prototype, Ultra-Pure Germanium, orthogonal-Strip Gamma Camera", Medical Radioisotope Scintigraphy, Vol. 1, Vienna, IAEA, 1973, p. 241. PA1 Xii. schlosser, P. A., D. W. Miller, M. S. Gerber, R. F. Redmond, J. W. Harpster, W. J. Collis, W. W. Hunter, Jr., "A Practical Gamma Ray Camera System Using High Purity Germanium", presented at the 1973 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium, San Francisco, November 1973; also published in IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. NS-21, No. 1 February 1974, p. 658. PA1 Xiii. owen, R. B., M. L. Awock, "One and Two Dimensional Position Sensing Semiconductor Dectectors," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. NS-15, June 1968, p. 290. PA1 Xiv. j. f. detko, "A Prototype, Ultra Pure Germanium, Orthogonal Strip Gamma Camera," Proceedings of the IAEA Symposium on Radioisotope Scintigraphy, IAEA/SM-164/135, Monte Carlo, October, 1972. PA1 Xv. schlosser, P. A., D. W. Miller, M. S. Gerber, R. F. Redmond, J. W. Harpster, W. J. Collis, W. W. Hunter, Jr., "A Practical Gamma Ray Camera System Using High Purity Germanium," presented at the 1973 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium, San Francisco, November 1973; also published in IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., Vol. NS-21, No. 1, February 1974, p. 658. PA1 Xvi. gerber, M. S., Miller, D. N., Gillespie, B., and Chemistruck, R. S., "Instrumentation For a High Purity Germanium Position Sensing Gamma Ray Detector," IEEE Trans. on Nucl. Sci., Vol. NS-22, No. 1, February, 1975, p. 416. PA1 Xvii. e. l. keller and J. W. Coltman, "Modulation Transfer and Scintillation Limitations in Gamma Ray Imaging," J. Nucl. Med. 9, 10, 537-545 (1968). PA1 Xviii. b. westerman, R. R. Sharma, and J. F. Fowler, "Relative Importance of Resolution and Sensitivity in Tumor Detection," J. Nucl. Med. 9, 12, 638-640 (1968). PA1 Xix. j. w. steidley, et al., "The Spatial Frequency Response of Orthogonal Strip Detectors, " IEEE Trans. Nuc. Sci., February, 1976.
A multiple channel collimator is interposed intermediate the source containing subject of investigation and the scintillation detector crystal. When a gamma ray emanating from the region of investigative interest interacts with the crystal, a scintillation is produced at the point of gamma ray absorption and appropriate ones of the photomultiplier tubes of the matrix respond to the thus generated light to develop output signals. The original position of gamma ray emanation is determined by position responsive networks associated with the outputs of the matrix.
A continually sought goal in the performance of gamma cameras is that of achieving a high resolution quality in any resultant image. Particularly, it is desirable to achieve this resolution in combination with concomitant utilization of a highly versatile radionuclide or radiolabel, such as 99m-Technetium, having a gamma ray or photon energy in the region of 140 keV.
The resolution capabilities of gamma cameras incorporating scintillation detector crystals, inter alia, is limited both by the light coupling intermediate the detector and phototube matrix or array as well as by scatter phenomena of the gamma radiation witnessed emanating from within the in vivo region of investigation. Concerning the latter scattering phenomena, a degradation or resolution occurs from scattered photons which are recorded in the image of interest. Such photons may derived from Compton scattering into trajectories wherein they are caused to pass through the camera collimator and interact photoelectrically with the crystal detector at positions other than their point of in vivo derivation. Should such photon energy loss to the Compton interaction be less than the energy resolution of the system, it will effect an off-axis recordation in the image of the system as a photopeak photon representing false information. As such scattered photons record photopeak events, the false information and consequent resoltuion quality of the camera diminishes. For the noted desirable 140 keV photons, the scintillation detector-type camera energy resolution is approximately 22 keV. With this resolution, photons which scatter through an angle from 0.degree. to about 70.degree., which pass through the collimator, will be seen by the system as such photopeak events.
A continuing interest in improving the resolution qualities of gamma cameras has lead to somewhat extensive investigation into imaging systems incorporating relatively large area solid-state semiconductor detectors. Such interest has been generated principally in view of theoretical indications of an order of magnitude improvement in statistically limited resolution to provide significant improvements in image quality. In this regard, for example, reference may be made to the following publications:
Particular interest on a part of investigators has been paid to detectors formed as hybridized diode structures fashioned basically of germanium. To provide discrete regions for spatial resolution of impinging radiation, the opposed parallel surfaces of the detector diodes may be grooved or similarly configured to define transversely disposed rows and columns, thereby providing identifiable discrete regions of radiation response. Concerning such approaches to treating the detectors, mention may be made of the following publications:
In the more recent past, investigators have shown particular interest in forming orthogonal strip matrix detectors from p-i-n semiconductors fashioned from an ultra pure germanium material. In this regard, reference is made to U.S. Pat. No. 3,761,711 as well as to the following publications:
High purity germanium detectors promise advantages in gamma camera resolution and consequent diagnostic flexibility. For instance, by utilizing high purity germanium as a detector, lithium drifting arrangements and the like for reducing impurity concentrations are avoided and the detector need only be cooled to requisite low temperatures during its clinical operation. Readout from the orthogonal strip germanium detectors is described as being carried out utilizing a number of techniques, for instance, each strip of the detector may be connected to a preamplifier-amplifier channel and thence directed to an appropriate logic function and visual readout. In another arrangement, a delay line readout system is suggested with the intent of reducing the number of preamplifier-amplifier channels, and a technique of particular interest utilizes a charge splitting method. With this method or technique, position sensitivity is obtained by connecting each contact strip of the detector to a charge dividing impedance network. Each end of each network is connected to a virtual earth, charge sensitive preamplifier. When a gamma ray interacts with the detector, the charge release enters the string of resistors or area of impedance and divides in relation to the amount of resistance between its entry point in the string and the preamplifiers at the network output. Utilizing fewer preamplifiers, the cost and complexity of such systems is advantageously reduced. A more detailed description of this readout arrangement is provided in:
To achieve requisite performance and camera image resolution, it is neceassary that substantially all sources of noise be minimized and that false information within the system be accounted for. In the absence of adequate noise resolution, the performance of the imaging systems may be compromised to the point of impracticality. Until the more recent past, charge-splitting germanium detector arrangements have not been considered to be useful in gamma camera applications in consequence of thermal noise anticipated in the above-noted resistor-divider networks, see publication VII, supra. However, such noise centered considerations now are accommodated for within camera system designs. In this regard, reference is made to copending application for U.S. patent, Ser. No. 656,304 by P. A. Schlosser et al, filed Feb. 9, 1976, entitled "Gamma Ray Camera for Nuclear Medicine": and application Ser. No. 680,754 by O. Miller et al. entitled "Control System for Gamma Camera" filed Apr. 7, 1976, both applications being assigned in common herewith.
Another aspect in the optimization of resolution of the images of gamma cameras resides in the necessarily inverse relationship between resolution and sensitivity. A variety of investigations has been conducted concerning this aspect of camera design, it being opined that photon noise limitations, i.e. statistical fluctuations in the image, set a lower limit to spacial resolution Further, it has been pointed out that the decrease in sensitivity witnessed in conventional high resolution collimators may cancel out any improvements sought to be gained in image resolution. A more detailed discourse concerning these aspects of design are provided, for instance, in the following publications:
More recent investigation of gamma camera performance has identified still another operational phenomenum tending to derogate from spatial resolution quality. This phenomenon is referred to as "aliasing" and represents a natural outgrowth of the geometry of the earlier noted orthogonal strip germanium detector. A more detailed discussion of the phenomena is provided at:
To remain practical, it is necessary that the imaging geometry of stationary type gamma cameras provide for as large a field of view as is practical. More particularly, considerations of clinical practicality require a camera field of view large enough to encompass the entire or a signifacant extent of the profiles of various organs of interest. Because of the considerable limitations encountered in the manufacture of detector crystals, for instance, high purity germanium crystals, the size of solid state detector components components necessarily is limited. As a consequence, composite detector configurations are required which conjoin a plurality of smaller detector components to provide an imaging field of view or radiation acceptance geometry of effectively larger size. However, such a union of a multitude of detector components must be carried out in such a manner that no significant loss of validity and acuity in the final image generated by the camera system. For instance, in the latter regard, spatial information must have a consistency of meaning across the entire extend of an ultimately displayed image of an organ, otherwise, clinical evaluation of such images may be encumbered considerally.